How Strong Is The Business Case For Diversity Management Business Essay

How Strong Is The Business Case For Diversity Management Business Essay Assignment Question: How strong is the business case for diversity management? Using research evidence and organizational examples, discuss the extent to which diversity-management is and should be applied. Table of Contents 1 Introduction 2 Defining Diversity 2 Defining Diversity Management 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity Management 3 Advantages of Diversity Management Program 3 Disadvantages of Diversity Management Program 4 Case Study of Diversity Management 5 Do and Dont in Diversity Management 6 Conclusion 7 References and Bibliography 8 Introduction The worlds increasing globalization trend demands more interaction between people from a vast diverse of cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds than the past. Today, people no longer live and work in an insulated marketplace. The reality is: they are now part of a worldwide (or commonly mentioned as flatten) economy with competition coming from nearly every angle of the globe. For this reason, businesses need to be open to change and accept the concept of diversity to become more creative (Kulik, 1998). The article in this section will be arranged as follow. Firstly, the concept of diversity will be defined. Then, the article further investigates and defines the concept of diversity management. Then, the perceived and often discussed advantages and disadvantages of diversity management program will be discussed. After that, some real life business cases on companies successfully managing diversity and subsequently reaped the benefits of growth, profitability and improved performance from an effective diversity management program will be presented. After the review of academic and research journals regarding the topic, the article proceed to suggest some do and dont for practical diversity management program. The article concludes with some outlook and general direction for managers to follow in implementation of diversity management program. Defining Diversity In daily conversation, the word of diversity has the meaning of differences or variety. However, in the business world and in the business textbook, diversity often refers to the many differences present among people today in workplace as well as marketplace that were not aware of by most people in the past. However, in-depth investigation discovered that different researchers may have different perceptions or definition on the concept of diversity. For example, Mondy (2010) argues that diversity refers to any perceived difference among people, be it from the dimensions of age, race, religion, functional specialty, profession, sexual orientation, geographical origin, lifestyle, tenure with the organization, position in an organization, or any other perceived differences. McShane and Von Glinow (2010), however, divided the concept of diversity into two parts, namely the surface-level diversity and the deep-level diversity. The surface-level diversity is referred to the observable demographic or psychological differences in people, such as their race, ethnicity, gender, age, and physical disabilities. In contrast, the deep-level diversity is referred to those differences in the psychological characteristics of employees, including personalities, beliefs, values, and attitudes. Whatever the definition employed, all these definitions share a common theme; where the terms of diversity encompasses any sort differences between two or more people from various dimensions of factors that can affect workplace relationships and achievement. Defining Diversity Management According to Mondy (2010), diversity management is often referred to the effort of ensuring that factors are in place to encourage the continuous development of a diverse workforce by melding actual and perceived differences among workers to achieve maximum productivity. Esty et. al. (1995), however, define diversity management as acknowledging, understanding, accepting, valuing, and celebrating differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice, and public assistance status for better workplace performance. The definitions of diversity management used by researchers are vast and may vary in the details. However, generally, it is safe to assume that the term diversity management indicates the implementation of strategies or policies to knit a network of varied individuals together into a dynamic work force. Advantages and Disadvantages of Diversity Management In recent years, diversity is increasingly perceived as an important issue in the context of business management. This is due to the increasing differences in the U.S. population, globalization process, increasing of international business and cross borders business dealing activities. Many researchers recognize such a trend and highlighted that diversity is an invaluable competitive asset that organizational decision makers cannot afford to ignore (Robinson, 2002). In the business community, companies have also tend to pay more focus on diversity and look for ways to reap the opportunities offered by diversity as they acknowledge that diversity has the potential of yielding greater productivity and competitive advantages (Cooke et. al., 2010). Apparently, managing and valuing diversity is a key component of effective people management, which not only can improve workplace productivity, but also contribute significantly to the strategic objectives of human resource management. Advantages of Diversity Management Program Many researchers and businessmen have been arguing about the importance and roles and contributions of managing diversity nowadays. Generally, they often present the idea that diversity can be a sort of strategy which enables organization to gain competitive advantage in the market competitive landscape. For example, according to researcher, namely, Bledsoe et. al. (2010) claim that: managing cultural diversity is one of the key factors differentiating a particular company at factors such as (1) efficient work practices or procedures, (2) technological innovation or change, (3) product or services related innovation and lastly, (4) client or consumers related services. However, there are more contributions of managing diversity to the strategic objectives of a company. The following paragraph will outline these contributions or benefits of diversity in workplace to an organization in details. Improved and enhanced competencies in terms of customer services. As a matter of fact, diverse workforce will often means diverse expertise, talent, experience and capabilities in the employees. If a manager understands the intricacies and complexity of how to manage diversity effective, he will be able to put the right person into the correct position, by minimizing his weaknesses while enhancing the particular employees strength. From this perspective, a diverse workforce enables a manager to choose the correct candidate for a particular position in the organization. For example, someone with cheering personality and has the ability to build rapport fast with customers can be send to the customer services department. All these means that diversity management will make the company to enjoy higher competencies in providing higher satisfaction to a customer (McMahon, 2010). Able to compile and improve the strength of customer intelligence. As we employ diverse workforce, we can indirectly tap into the knowledge and experience of these workforce. In the era of information, we understand that marketing intelligence or customer intelligence has becoming more and more important. Diversity in workforce in this picture can help a company to compile and collect more relevant and effective data on the market place. Ability to operate effectively as well as efficiently in a global context. As a well known fact, the entire world is a colorful depiction of diversity. Thus, to go global, a diverse workforce is some sort a basis requirement. We simply need the local experts to assist us in managing business units at foreign countries or simply to expand market share in the other countries. Thus, it is not hard for us to understand that a diverse workforce will enable a company to operate more effectively and efficiently (Bledsoe et. al., 2010). Able to produce more satisfied workforce, and thus leading to more productive workforce. If a company can manage diversity in a proper way, then the individual employee will no longer need to clone or purposely changed himself to adaption of the corporate culture. This can often leads to a more satisfied workforce. A more satisfied workforce, will in turn, leads to more productive workforce (McMahon, 2010). Effective managing of diversity enables reduction in industrial disputes. Of course, proper management of diversity can also ensure less industrial dispute or court case arises from employees issues (Cooke et. al., 2010). Diverse workforce can lead to increased creativity and innovation. Diversity can produce synergy and creativity and innovative as well. A group of different people is better than a results produced by a single person. The combined efforts are always much outstanding. Not only that, it is also often mentioned by textbook that: Diverse workforce can produce more diverse perspectives, which in turn is highly beneficial in seeking or implementing solutions to problems (McMahon, 2010). Having better chance to attract higher quality employees from a larger pool of employees (Tatti et. al., 2009). As a company prepare or has already adopted the mindset of having diversity is beneficial, then the company automatically access to a diverse pool of human talents, which means that the company can choose the employees from a larger pool of workforce. As now the choices are enlarged, then we can have access to better talents around the world, or in other words, we can access to the world class talents around the globe (Pitts et. al., 2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Avoidance of group-think or cloning. (McMahon, 2010)mentioned that workplace heterogeneity can assist in avoiding groupthink or cloning, which in turn this will lead to increased productivity and reduces costs. To explain further, cost reduction is possible when we can have a reduction in conflict, lower turnover and absenteeism and improved cohesion. Likewise, Tatti et. al. (2009) finds that there is ample evidence to suggest that diverse groups with the skills and support systems to integrate effectively are likely to be significantly more effective than non diverse or homogeneous groups in the same activities. Disadvantages of Diversity Management Program However, the relationship between managing diversity and a particular companys performance from various empirical researches is not always straightforward. A good example by Stephensen and Lewin (1996) indicate that poorly integrated heterogeneous groups can be as damaging to the organization as overly integrated homogeneous groups. Apparently, managing diversity is an art, while although the contribution to a company strategic management picture is bright, the execution is nothing easy. Besides, unfortunately, there are also evidences that diversity can bring disadvantages to companies as well. For example, it is found that teams with diverse employees usually take longer to perform effectively. Besides, diversity also brings numerous communication problems as well as faultiness in informal group dynamics. At some serious cases, diversity can also be a source of conflict, that can cause issues such as reluctant to share information among workforce, employee morale deterioration prob lems, and higher turnover due to degradation of job satisfaction (McShane Von Glinow, 2010). Not only that, it is also mentioned that there can be various drawbacks due to implementation of diversity management program in the short term. For example, if handled insensitively, a diversity management program may invade employee privacy. Also, implementation of the diversity management program may be expensive in the short term. Apart from that, during the implementation process, deep seated prejudices within employees may be brought into the open, causing short-term tension. Particularly for a poorly handled program, conflicts and ill-feeling may be the end results for managers to handle (Tatti et. al., 2009). Case Study of Diversity Management There are various cases or real-life stories showing that diversity management can contribute to improved productivity, sales, market share, or profitability. There are three examples shown in the following section. Case I: Petro-Canada. The first case is about Petro-Canada. Recognizing that diversity management is essential; a Petro-Canada site in Vancouvers Chinese community, started to post signs in both English and Mandarin. The company is interested increase the companys presence within the community. Apart from that, after a team of sales associates found out that they had to be able to speak their customers native language as well, recruitment changes were made accordingly. Soon, the company was able to reap the benefit of diversity with a diverse workforce. The results and outcomes are outstanding, kiosk sales increased by 15 percent, and gasoline sales rose from 2.7 million liters to 3.1 million liters at the Main and Terminal stations, in just a mere four year period, between 1991 and 1994 (Pitts et. al., 2010). Case II: The McGraw Hill Companies. The second example is about a well-known book publishing company. The McGraw-Hill Companies emphasizes diverse workforce management. The reason is to tap into different talents available and critical to enhance the company presence worldwide. One program of the company talent management strategy is called the Associate Development Program (ADP). Since the program began in 1993, it has attracted talented individuals from top MBA business schools who are diverse in race, ethnicity, experience and perspective. All these diversity management programs had enable the McGraw-Hill Companies to leverages talent in global markets, on a worldwide basis. One striking example of using diverse workforce to tackle a foreign market is as follow: recruitment of local talent has enabled The McGraw-Hill Companies to solidify its brand reputation and market share in Latin America due to their expertise, cultural know-how, teamwork, experience and knowledge of the need s of the local market (Tatti et. al., 2009). Case III: Reebok. The well-known sport company has also been benefiting from a diversity management program. In the year of 1980s, a group of women at Reebok complained the fact that they could not find a good aerobics shoe. Listening to that complaint, Reebok began marketing aerobics shoes. The outcome is outstanding within just a period of two years, the company went from a $12 million-a-year shoe company to a $3 billion powerhouse. Since the incident, the company started to be aware of the importance of diversity. According to the CEO, Paul Fireman said that in order to become diverse and compete globally, a company must find people with different stories to tell at every level of employment, and then provide chances and opportunity for them to talk and perform (Pitts et. al., 2010). Case IV: IBM. IBM has a century-long diversity heritage based on the companys belief and philosophy that diversity is the bridge between the workplace and the marketplace. Such a belief and the act of valuing diversity are central to the companys ability to win in the global marketplace. Today, diversity management permeates every corner of IBMs management and technical operations and management style. Statistically speaking a convincing fact showing that the company is embracing diversity management whole-heartedly is this: 57% of IBMs Board of Directors is women, multicultural, and/or non-U.S. born (i.e., they are the minority group). Apart from that, it is also found that 40% of IBMs top 54-member Worldwide Executive Council is women, multicultural, or non-U.S. born. On closer scrutiny, it is not surprising to found that these women and multicultural executives have significant revenue responsibility. Not only that, further investigation also discover that 30 members of IBMs World wide Executive Council are involved in guiding specific corporate-wide diversity initiatives. They are held accountable for recruitment, retention and advancement of all talent and, most important, linking IBMs diversity initiatives to the global marketplace, which is in turn the main reason that IBM has been able to stay on top of the business landscape for decades (Cooke et. al., 2010). Case V: Levi Strauss Co. At Levi Strauss Co., diversity is a core company value being embraced by the companys management and workforce. The diversity management concept permeates throughout the organization the evidence is in the corporate belief that diversity is right for business, communities, and for families. The company senior managers had also argued that diversity creates greater tolerance. To sum up the implementation and philosophy of diversity management program in the company, we can observe the following statement from the companys officers. Specifically, the company officers mentioned that the companys diversity belief system translates into a four-component diversity strategy that has been instrumental in building their business. The four-components are as follow: (1) Sourcing diverse talent, (2) Empathetic marketing: If you are who you serve, [then] you will be a better marketer. (3) Creativity and innovation, and lastly (4) Community involvement. Such a belief sy stem is critical and powerful factors which ensure Levi Strauss Co. sustainable growth and success in the global marketplace (Cooke et. al., 2010). Do and Dont in Diversity Management As we have discussed above, there are perceived advantages and disadvantages of embracing diversity in workplace. It seems that there are evidences and cases indicating that diversity are possible source of competitive advantage and superior performance for businesses, but the implementation and the management of diversity is not an easy one. Apparently, the mismanagement of diversity or inability of the leader or manager to outline and execute and effective diversity management program will cause troubles to the organization with diverse workforce. In fact, for inexperience mangers, diversity indeed looks more like a curse than a blessing. Anyway, this writing has the opinion that it the presence of diversity is well-managed, it can create synergy and improve organizational performances. It is believed that diversity is a powerful strategy as managers can leverage on the strengths of some people in the team while making the weaknesses of some others irrelevant. The strengths in a person can compensate for the weaknesses of others, while his weaknesses are covered by others strengths, and this is essential for a high performing team. Consistent with such a view, this section will outline some do and dont for practitioners to follow. It may serve as a general guideline for managers to refer to in applying the concept of diversity management to daily management tasks (Cooke et. al., 2010). The first thing the manager should perform in managing diversity is that to ensure effectiveness of the diversity management program, the managers should communicate constantly to employees, managers, customers, shareholders, and other stakeholders at all stages of the program (Bledsoe et. al., 2010). It is vital to keep people informed as their support is necessary for the successful implementation of a diversity management program. The execution should involve everyone; as such a program is not an issue for only the personnel department or a responsibility of senior managers. Besides, it is also critically important to apply a change management processes to implement the program. The leader driving the changes should be aware that a long term perspective is required in implementation of a diversity management program (i.e., changes involves attitudes and dont happen overnight, and leaders have to expect that the program will last for years rather than a few weeks or months). Last b ut not least, the leaders must also have the correct expectations that resources are required for the program. Leaders must be prepared to invest money, time and resources to achieve successful diversity management program. On the other hand, there are two general dont rules to be aware of by managers. Firstly, managers should not confuse equal opportunities with diversity management. The equal opportunity approach can be part of any diversity initiative, but a successful diversity management program should go far beyond traditional equal opportunity issues. Secondly, managers should not design the diversity goals and policies for them (i.e., referring to the minorities), but they should instead think of us (i.e., everyone involved in the organization) (Bledsoe et. al., 2010). Conclusion This writing takes a critical view on the business case of diversity management. The results from researchers have been mixed. There are both advantages and disadvantages to a diversity management program. Successful cases of diversity management to improve company and workforce performance are also widely available. Apparently, from a review of the many journals related to diversity management, it can be summarized that the program can bring forward many benefits to a firm, but the implementation of the program can be challenging and resources consuming. Perhaps what is relevant for us to consider is how to cope with the increasing trend of workforce diversity in the globalization era. Organizations should recognize the changing workforce and other social pressures that are constantly demanding businesses to cope with diversity. Achieving diversity is not merely to become politically correct; it is more about cultivation of a culture that values individuals and their wide arrays of needs characteristics, nature and contributions. The good news is that correctly promoting and executing a diversity management program can improve company performance and to enhance the corporate reputation among marketplace, even though the implementation of the program is challenging.

Motherboard Essay

Before generation of Microprocessors i.e. in 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation computers, the computer was usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections between card connector pins. But printed circuit boards soon became the standard practice in the late 1970s. The Central Processing Unit, memory and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplane. (A backplane is a circuit board that connects several connectors in parallel to each other, so that each pin of each connector is linked to the same relative pin of all the other connectors, forming a computer bus.) During the late 1980s and 1990s, it was found that increasing the number of peripheral functions on the PCB was very economical. Hence, single Integrated Circuits (ICs), capable of supporting low-speed peripherals like serial ports, mouse, keyboards, etc., were included on the motherboards. By the late 1990s, motherboards began to have full range of audio, video, storage and networking functions on them. Higher end systems for 3D gaming and graphic cards were also included later. Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, etc. were few companies that were early pioneers in the field of motherboard manufacturing but, companies like Apple and IBM soon took over. Today, motherboards typically boast a wide variety of built-in features, and they directly affect a computer’s capabilities and potential for upgrades. Today Intel and Asus are the two leading companies in the field of motherboard manufacturing. A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components connected to the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself. Few things that a motherboard nowadays include are: †¢ sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors may be installed. †¢ slots into which the system’s main memory is to be installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips). †¢ a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU’s front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses. †¢ non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system’s firmware or BIOS. †¢ a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components. †¢ slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset). †¢ power connectors, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards. †¢ Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Occasionally video interface hardware is also integrated into the motherboard. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports are provided as expansion cards. †¢ Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat. [pic] CPU Sockets †¢ A CPU socket or slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). †¢ It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including a physical structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most importantly, forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. †¢ CPU sockets can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture on the motherboard. A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support the CPU series and speed. Integrated Peripherals †¢ It is possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers. Peripheral Card Slots †¢ A standard ATX motherboard will typically have one PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card, two conventional PCI slots for various expansion cards, and one PCI-E 1x. A standard EATX motherboard will have one PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card, and a varying number of PCI and PCI-E 1x slots. It can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot. †¢ Some motherboards have two PCI-E 16x slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware, or use a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for ATI). These allow 2 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming and video editing. †¢ Virtually all motherboards come with at least four USB ports on the rear, with at least 2 connections on the board internally for wiring additional front ports that may be built into the computer’s case. †¢ Ethernet is also included. Ethernet is a standard networking cable for connecting the computer to a network or a modem. †¢ A sound chip is always included on the motherboard, to allow sound output without the need for any extra components. This allows computers to be far more multimedia-based than before. Some motherboards contain video outputs on the back panel for integrated graphics solutions. Computer Cooling †¢ Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips, such as the Northbridge, in modern motherboards. If the motherboard is not cooled properly, it can cause the computer to crash. †¢ Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPUs until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on their heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional case fans as well. †¢ Newer motherboards have integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures, and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed. Some computers use a water-cooling system instead of many fans. Bus & Bus Speed †¢ A bus is simply a circuit that connects one part of the motherboard to another. The more data a bus can handle at one time, the faster it allows information to travel. The speed of the bus, measured in megahertz (MHz), refers to how much data can move across the bus simultaneously. †¢ Bus speed usually refers to the speed of the front side bus (FSB), which connects the CPU to the northbridge. FSB speeds can range from 66 MHz to over 800 MHz. Since the CPU reaches the memory controller though the northbridge, FSB speed can dramatically affect a computer’s performance. [pic] Memory †¢ The speed of the chipset and busses controls how quickly it can communicate with other parts of the computer. The speed of the RAM connection directly controls how fast the computer can access instructions and data, and therefore has a big effect on system performance. A fast processor with slow RAM is going nowhere. †¢ The amount of memory available also controls how much data the computer can have readily available. RAM makes up the bulk of a computer’s memory. The general rule of thumb is the more RAM the computer has, the better. †¢ Much of the memory available today is dual data rate (DDR) memory. This means that the memory can transmit data twice per cycle instead of once, which makes the memory faster. Also, most motherboards have space for multiple memory chips, and on newer motherboards, they often connect to the northbridge via a dual bus instead of a single bus. This further reduces the amount of time it takes for the processor to get information f rom the memory. †¢ A motherboard’s memory slots directly affect what kind and how much memory is supported. Just like other components, the memory plugs into the slot via a series of pins. The memory module must have the right number of pins to fit into the slot on the motherboard. Form factor †¢ Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes called computer form factor, some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. †¢ The current desktop PC form factor of choice is ATX. A case’s motherboard and PSU form factor must all match, though some smaller form factor motherboards of the same family will fit larger cases. For example, an ATX case will usually accommodate a microATX motherboard. †¢ Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized and customized motherboards. This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated components.

The Contribution of Processual and Emergent Perspectives to Strategic Change

Change is ubiquitous. Organisational change has become synonymous with managerial effectiveness since the 1980s (Burnes, 1996; Wilson, 1992). However, north American influence over the quest for commitment, efficiency and improved performance, appears to have fallen back upon largely Tayloristic notions of management, with the result that organisational change is widely perceived to be controllable by modern management, with organisations themselves instrumental in their in their hands (Collins, 1997). However, this ‘scientific' approach appears to have diffused with scant regard to contextual variables that may serve to modify and constrain contemporary managerial rhetoric for change (Hatch, 1997). One perspective that attempts to refocus the debate on wider issues has come to be known as the processual or emergent approach to organisational change (Collins, 1997), and it is this perspective that this paper seeks to evaluate You can read also Waves First, the inevitability of change is briefly considered as the time frame selected for organisational analysis tends to dictate the substance of investigation. This leads into a critique of planned change under the umbrella of strategic choice, with its core assumptions based upon managerial hegemony. This approach is then contrasted with the processual and emergent perspectives that seek to widen management appreciation to include factors beyond the organisation and its immediate environments. The implications of the apparent divergence between theory and practice are briefly outlined before concluding that the subjectivist paradigm of the processual/emergent approach is best seen as a modification to theories of strategic choice, which may add to effective managerial practice in the future. This argument is qualified by the need to support such a modification by a fundamental change in modern managerial education. The Inevitability of Change ‘Change' exudes temporality. While it may be a truism that in any field of activity, all periods may be characterised by change and continuity, the time frame selected will tend to highlight change or continuity (Blyton and Turnbull, 1998). For example, a focus upon organisational change during the last two-decades may reveal a period of rapid change. However, a perspective encompassing the last two hundred years may indicate a basic continuity in the capitalist social mode of production (ibid). Consequently, differentiating between whether organisational change should be analysed from the perspective of a strict chronology of ‘clock' or linear time, with its associated notions of relentless progress, planning and implementation, or whether changed is viewed from the perspective of a processual analysis over tracts of time, has given rise to a vigorous debate on how change should be understood as it applies to complex business organisations (Wilson, 1992). Two paradigms dominate the analysis of organisational change. On the one hand, a positivist view holds that change is objectively measurable, and thus controllable, embracing notions of rationality, temporal linearity and sequence – change is an outcome of deliberate action by change agents (Hatch, 1997; Kepner and Tregoe, 1986). On the other hand, a subjectivist view holds that change is dependent upon the temporal context of the wider social system in which it occurs and is thus a social construction – while organisations define and attempt to manage their change processes, outcomes are not necessarily the result of the top-down cascade advocated by the planned approach (Pettigrew, 1985). Consequently, as a point of departure, planned organisational change shall be discussed before moving on to examine the emergent approach as a challenge to the rational model. The Planned Perspective Contemporary US and UK managerial ideology may be identified as an outcome of, and a contributor to, neo-liberalist voluntarism (Dunlop, 1993). This ideology is mobilised through the agency of management to protect capital's interests above all others. Consequently, management and managers come to be considered a social elite through their exercise of ‘god-like' control over a logical and rational process of adaptation, change and ever-improving performance. The organisation is thus instrumental in the hands of management (Collins, 1997; Daft, 1998; Hatch, 1997; Kepner and Tregow, 1986). Generally referred to as ‘strategic choice', the planned approach, according to Wilson (1992:22) is constructed upon the following theories of organisation: 1 Organisational Development (OD) and Behavioural Modification (BM); 2 Planned incrementalism; 3 The ‘enterprise culture', best practice and ‘gurus' as change agents. These perspectives have all in common the role of human agency, whereby, ‘†¦human decisions make an important difference†¦ a voluntarism in which human courage and determination count' (Gouldner 1980, cited in Wilson, 1992:25). OD and BM (closed system) approaches emanate from the field of psychology, positing that organisational change is implemented by management through changing the behaviour of individuals. OD aims to foster consensus and participation on the basis that management attributes resistance to change to poor interpersonal relations (Wilson, 1992). BM is a systematic approach to the conditioning of managerially defined ‘appropriate' behaviour, based upon Skinnerian psychological theories of learning (reward and punishment) and motivation (ibid). Both approaches are based on the assumptions that managers are capable of identifying internal barriers to change, determining appropriate behaviours, and designing and implementing programmes to achieve desired outcomes. Consequently, there is a plethora of ‘frameworks', ‘recipes' and ‘how to' packages aimed at managerial audiences (Collins, 1997) A central feature of many of these packages is Lewin's (1951) ‘force field' framework, which proposes that change is characterised as a state of imbalance between pressures for change and pressures against change. It is suggested that managers are capable of adjusting the equilibrium state of zero-change, by selectively removing or modifying specific forces in the required direction (Senior, 1997). Implicit is the normative nature of planned change: managers should know the various forces as they apply to their own particular situation, and should understand and possess the means to exert influence over them. It follows that, ceteris parebus, without deliberate managerial action, change, at worst is unlikely to occur and, at best, is unlikely to realise desired outcomes without the intervention of chance (Collins, 1997). Planned incrementalism argues that change is constant and evolutionary and should be planned in small steps based on an orderly adjustment to information flowing in from the operating environment (Quinn 1980, cited in Senior, 1997). This approach is related to contingency theory. The argument runs that the most effective way to organise is contingent upon conditions of complexity and change in the environment. Thus, the organisation should achieve congruence with its market environment and managers should support their strategies with appropriate structures and processes to enhance the likelihood of success (ibid). Turning to the final ‘ingredients', Wilson (1992:37) argues that ‘enterprise culture', ‘best practice' and ‘management gurus' are different faces of the same ideology. Enterprise culture denotes best practice and grows from a particular interpretation of management theory. This interpretation shapes the role of external consultants and thus determines who are the gurus; the ideology becomes self-supporting. Thus the ideology of strategic choice is mobilised in support of managerial ideology: to be successful in a free market system (entrepreneurial), firms should be modelled by managers upon best practice (currently, from the US and Japan), should adopt flexible specialisation and decentralised structures, and should seek to create organisational cultures congruent with managers' own. The ‘successful' manager comes to be defined as a ‘change master' (Kanter, 1993; see Peters and Waterman, 1982). The Emergent, Processual Perspective A common critique of the planned perspective is that the ability of management to rationally plan and implement organisational change ignores the influence of wider, more deterministic forces outside the realms of strategic choice (Wilson, 1992). Largely in opposition to this perspective and generally referred to as ‘systemic conflict', the emergent approach, according to Wilson (ibid:22) is constructed upon the following theories of organisation: 1 Contextualism; 2 Population ecology; 3 Life cycles; 4 Power and politics; 5 Social action. While also tending to acknowledge the role of human agency in effecting change, these approaches serve to widen the debate to include the impact of human interaction at micro and macro levels, thus constraining strategic choice (ibid). Contextualism is based upon an open systems (OS) model which views any organisation as being an interdependent component of a much larger whole (Pettigrew, 1985). Serving as a direct intellectual challenge to closed system perspectives, fundamental is the notion that no organisation exists in a vacuum. Emery and Trist (1960, cited in Wilson, 1992) argue that OS reveals the following characteristics: Equifinality – no one best way of achieving the same outcomes; Negative entropy – importing operating environment resources to curtail or reverse natural decay; Steady state – relationship stability between inputs, throughputs, outputs; Cycles and patterns – cash flows, stock-turns and so on. Thus, OS enables the variances between organisations' performances to be explained by external influences, facilitating comparative analysis, the establishment of sectoral norms and the identification of ‘supra-normal' practices (Wilson, 1992). Population ecology (and perhaps institutional theories) is based upon the Darwinian notion of ‘survival of the fittest' (Hatch, 1997). Thus strategic change is aimed at maximising ‘fitness' within the general population of organisations, through the identification of ‘market' niches and strategies of specialisation, differentiation or generalism (Porter, 1980, 1985). Competitive advantage is thus created and sustained through the construction of distinctive and inimitable structures, processes and cultures, eg: erecting high barriers to entry through technological investment, or eliminating threats of product substitution through high R & D investment and thus (desired) innovation (ibid). The life cycle perspective explicitly recognises the temporal nature of organisational change. Though linear in nature (all life cycle theories assume birth, growth, maturity, decline and death as givens), this approach provides insights into the potential internal and external conditions (and constraints) that an organisation is likely to encounter during distinct life cycle phases (Greiner, 1972 cited in Senior, 1997). However, this approach suffers from a similar critique to those levied at models of planned change. ‘Cycles' are not in fact cycles (suggesting reincarnation). Development is linear and progressive and an organisation's location on the ‘cycle' is highly subjective. Perhaps the major contribution of the emergent approach to organisational change, is the highlighting of the role of power and politics in moderating managerial efforts to effect fundamental and sustainable change (Handy, 1986). Essentially, three political models of power reveal that outcomes are incapable of being considered independently of processes and personal stakes. First, overt power is the visible manifestation of localised influence over preferred processes and outcomes (eg: ‘it's the way we've always done things around here'). Second, covert power is less visible and related to the extent of information sharing and participation in change processes afforded by organisational sub-groups (eg: senior management) to others – the phrase ‘inner circle' is a common indicator of covert power relations in operation. Finally, third, contextual power suggests that outcomes are mediated by societal forces and the economic structure of society itself (eg: elites, notions of social justice, and so on) (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). Postmodern analysis reveals the influence of discourse, symbol and myth as interchangeable between organisations and societies in the endorsement of preferred solutions. Thus, contextual power may be utilised to shape the wider justification and acceptability for organisational change( eg: ‘restructuring' for labour stripping; ‘reingeering' for work intensification; ‘partnership' for collective labour coercion; ‘TQM' for zero-tolerance and panoptican managerial control). Moreover, the contextual power perspective also reveals the hegemony of accounting ideology in neo-liberal systems (itself positivist, reductionist and inextricably linked to Taylorism). Thus serving to expose the influence of elite groups, notably silent under the strategic choice framework (Wilson, 1992). Finally, social action theories depict organisational culture (OC) as the structure of social action (ibid). The strategic framework choice would hold that OC is a possession of the organisation and is thus capable of manipulation . In contrast, the systemic conflict framework depicts OC is something an organisation is (a contrasting ontological position) and is therefore largely beyond managerial influence (Legge, 1995). Nevertheless, ‘strong' (integrated) notions of OC are eulogised by the so-called gurus (see Kanter, 1993; Peters and Waterman, 1982), despite receiving severe criticism for their weak methodological foundations (See Guest, 1992). The emergent approach appears to be at odds with the strong culture = high performance proposition at the heart of most change programmes; its causality is unclear. Implications As the above discussion illustrates, the management of change appears to hold sway over the analysis of change (Wilson, 1992). This implies that understanding has been exchanged for expediency. Put differently, managing change is both a learnable and teachable skill. In view of the short-termism inherent in the US and UK economies, with their shareholder emphasis on maximum financial returns and minimal financial risk (itself a contradiction with the notion of ‘entrepreneur'), it is hardly surprising that ‘recipes for success' are so eagerly sought after by under pressure managers and eagerly supplied by management gurus with pound-signs in their eyes. Practice appears to be on a divergent path from theory (Collins, 1997). Collins (ibid) attributes this apparent divergence to managerial education, which itself (as must any educative process) be viewed as a perpetuation of ideology. With respect to organisational change, management education serves to promote the aggrandisement of managers as †Canute-like rulers of the waves'. Epitomised by the MBA (Master of Bugger All?) with its roots in north America, such programmes are themselves reductionist and short-term in nature. Thus, students are precluded by time constraints from exposure to the theoretical foundations of change and, consequently, may be discouraged from challenging received wisdom. This is not to assert that ‘hands on' skills are unimportant, rather to expose that they lose potency in the absence of the appreciation of the wider context which MBA ‘babble', among a wider range of programmes, serves to suffuse. Conclusion – a rejection of Positivism? The investigation of organisational change has not escape the inexorable north American ‘shift' towards hypothetico-deductive perspectives of economics and psychology, with their positivist paradigms focused upon atomisation akin to the natural sciences (Cappelli, 1995). From a temporal perspective, while organisational change is viewed as inevitable in much the same way as in nature, the time frame selected for analysis tends to dictate the scope and degree of change to be investigated. Short-termism, it appears, is a form of temporal reductionism in the search for objective truth, that is a key factor behind the notion that managers can be trained to manage change through sets of skills that imply mastery over the ‘natural' world and therefore, time itself. In this view, planned models of change, rooted in classical theories of management, may be accused of being an ideological construct of assumed legitimacy and authenticity. On the other hand, a subjectivist systemic tension approach, rejects reductionist ‘tool kits' and lays claim to the inclusion of contextual variables at work throughout an organisation, its operating environment and beyond. In this view, while change is clearly not beyond managerial influence, its management is reliant upon wider understanding of the interplay of these variables, of which power relations may be prominent, in order to be able to predict the likely outcomes of managerial actions. However, for something to exist it must be capable of theoretical explanation. That practitioners have opted for voluntarist models of strategic change is not surprising given the elitist ideology of modern management: to control is to manage; short-termism equates to reduced risk and increased control; the institutions of Western corporate governance and finance thus have their goals met by such an approach. Yet, this is to obfuscate the quintessential qualities of the processual, emergent contribution to organisational change. While not refuting planned change, it perhaps serves to modify it – for any change to be understood, explained and sustained, the duality of voluntarism and determinism must be acknowledged and incorporated into the managerial knowledge base. The emergent approach exposes the potential folly of the extremes of positivism as applied to organisations as social entities, thus throwing open the debate to multi-disciplinary perspectives and enriching the field or organisational change. To be of value, such enrichment must be reflected in managerial education itself.

Sin Sin And Sin - 1196 Words

Ariah Quinonez Vesely ENGL1302.7 27 April 2017 Sin Sin can be interpreted in many different ways, one can choose to incorporate a religious belief, or another can simply rely on the right and wrong standards of a society. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the word sin can be defined as an offense against religious or moral law (â€Å"Sin.† Merriam-Webster). According to my own accumulated knowledge and spiritual beliefs, sin is the failure to conform to the standard of perfection established by God. The seven deadly sins come to mind when discussing and interpreting the word sin. These sins haunt the lives of many human beings, and cause destruction, devastation, and remorse. The seven deadly sins include: Envy, the desire to have†¦show more content†¦For example, the star of the popular television show, Man VS. Food, is extremely gluttonous. His meals are enough to feed a 4-member family of an undeveloped country in need. He over indulges by eating food mostly for pleasure and fame. Also, our music, Rappers of this century constantly rap lyrics about their lustful thoughts on women, gluttonous actions of liquor and drug consumption, and almost every single sin one could think of. I myself am even guilty of committing several of the seven deadly sins along with the entire human race.. An example of committing the concepts of the seven deadly sins, appears in the book titled The Great Gatsby. The entire plot, and characters’ values revolve around the 7 deadly sins. Gatsby and Tom both exemplify these sins. Gatsby’s desire for Daisy and his jealousy of the rich lifestyle, expresses envy. He thinks Tom doesn t deserve Daisy, he wants her and will do anything to please her to win her over. Gatsby crafts himself as an image that begs to be desired just as he once desired it. Gluttony is showed when the people that come to the parties take advantage of all the offerings Gatsby supplies for them. They eat and drink and dance and party to excess, and take extreme advantage of the offerings of a man they don’t even know. In the book, there are many characters who are a bit more than well-off. Both GatsbyShow MoreRelatedThe Sin Of The Original Sin961 Words   |  4 PagesWhen I think of the Original Sin, I think of the world’s first sin—t he patriarchy and matriarchy sin. Today, the world consists of sinners begging the Lord for forgiveness—thanks to Adam and Eve. How different would the world be if Adam and Eve did not bit the forbidden fruit? Would such sin still exist today? â€Å"If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just will forgive us our sins and purify us from all unrighteousness† (1 John 1:9 King James Version). 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